Mixing and Cut Equipment☆

C.L. Knipe , in Reference Module in Food Science, 2019

Bowl Choppers

These devices have been popular for batch operations for the production of coarse-cut sausages and meat emulsions (Fig. 7 ). They offer the advantage over other systems that the mixing and comminution footstep can be accomplished in one operation. A disadvantage of bowl choppers is that they are best suited to batch operations as opposed to high-speed continuous operations. Basin choppers are versatile, permitting a wide range of variability that is operator-controlled. They have the disadvantage that particle size is totally operator-dependent, making uniformity from batch to batch quite hard. Every bit contrasted with mincer/grinders, they give better particle distinction and less smearing but produce more variability in particle size. Bowl choppers cannot be fitted with bone removal systems as can mincer/grinders.

Figure 7. A basin chopper fitted with a vacuum hood. The pocketknife hood is open to show the six-blade knife assembly. The unloading scoop is to the left of the knife associates.

The basin chopper consists of a rotating bowl with a series of rotating knives running in a vertical plane in the trough of the bowl. The knife caput speed can be varied, as can the rotation speed of the bowl. Knife heads can vary from ii to 12 knives and chopper capacity tin can range from a few kilograms of meat to well over m   kg. Each chopper will take an optimum chapters range for effective chopping. Overloading and underloading can decrease the effectiveness of the chopper.

In operation, the knives must be kept sharp and uniformly counterbalanced. The knives should be ready with minimum bowl clearance to produce effective chopping. As with the mincer/grinders, all types of comminution equipment produce frictional rut. This heating outcome must be considered in arriving at the optimum final batch temperature.

Well-nigh larger choppers take an unloading device that scoops the finished meat batter out of the chopper as the basin rotates. They may also be equipped with temperature-measuring devices to monitor the meat temperature during chopping and may be equipped with bowl rotation counters and timers. Monitoring the condition of the meat past number of minutes or number of revolutions of the basin has severe drawbacks because it does non take into account variations in meat texture.

Other Features

Choppers tin can be equipped with a vacuum hood to enable the vacuumizing of an emulsion or meat batter during chopping ( Fig. 7). They tin can also be equipped with a carbon dioxide snow hood to enable the injection of cryogens into the chopper.

Choppers can be equipped with a steam jacket to permit for cooking while chopping. This feature is useful in the manufacture of some liver sausages and patés.

Vertical Cutter/Mixers

At that place are some vertical mixer/cutters that resemble big food processors. In these cases, the knife head rotates in a horizontal aeroplane. These are usually of relatively small capacity for production use. They are quite useful, all the same, for preparing samples for laboratory assay.

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Current Practices in Moisture Granulation-Based Generic Product Evolution

Rajan Verma , ... Carlos O. Paz , in Handbook of Pharmaceutical Moisture Granulation, 2019

vi.ane.iii Chopper Speed

The purpose of the chopper is to intermission loose granules so as to allow farther granule growth. Commonly, chopper speed has piffling event on the granule size; notwithstanding, ane of the literature reports (Briens & Logan, 2011) shows the bear on of chopper speed based on impeller speed. In this study, chopper presence and thereafter, chopper speed was varied during moisture high-shear granulation of a placebo conception using a PMA-one granulator while also varying the impeller speed. The effect of the chopper on the granules varied with impeller speed from no effect at a low impeller speed of 300   rpm to menstruation interruptions at an impeller speed of 700   rpm to minimal impact at very high impeller speeds as caking at the bowl perimeter obscured the effect of the chopper on the flow blueprint. Differences in the granule flowability were minimal. It was concluded, nevertheless, that the largest fraction of optimal granules would be obtained at an impeller speed of 700   rpm with the chopper at 1000   rpm assuasive balances between period establishment, segregation, and centrifugal forces.

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Sausage processing and product

Steven Thou. Lonergan , ... Dennis N. Marple , in The Science of Animal Growth and Meat Technology (2nd Edition), 2019

Bowl chopper

Chopping footing meat in a silent chopper or bowl chopper (see Fig. fourteen.6) starts the process of developing a meat or sausage emulsion matrix for the batter preparation. Lean ground meat is added to the bowl chopper along with one half of the water or ice used in the formula, and table salt, curing ingredients, phosphates, and seasonings, such as white pepper, paprika, nutmeg, coriander, ginger, and garlic, are added systematically into the chopper and finely chopped for several minutes. Once the mixture reaches 36–40°F, the fat portion, remaining water, and other ingredients are added and apace comminuted for several minutes until a stable batter-emulsion matrix (Fig. xiv.five) is produced. Bounden of h2o is especially disquisitional in the production of depression-fatty hot dogs. Nonmeat proteins, such every bit soy, are often used in the low-fat hot dogs.

Fig. 14.6

Fig. 14.6. An example of a silent chopper used to prepare emulsions for sausage industry.

 Courtesy, Iowa Country University Meat Science Laboratory.

Smaller fat aerosol are easier for proteins to stabilize. Chopping the concoction to the temperature that fat aerosol may start to melt helps to decrease the size of the fat aerosol. Therefore terminal chopping temperature is critical to institute a stable emulsion matrix for the batter, and the final chopping temperature varies with the type of meat used in the formula for the sausage that is chopped. For example, the temperature for final chopping of pork is 55–60°F, poultry is 34°F, and 65–lxx°F for beef. In general, more than saturated fats in beefiness tissue require a warmer temperature for melting and stabilization of the lipid past the fat-binding proteins. The amount of fat must exist held within sure limits if the sausage is to maintain a proper and stable emulsion matrix structure during processing and handling. There must be enough soluble poly peptide available so it tin can surround the fat droplets and rapidly coagulate during the heating process. This prevents the escape of the liquid fatty from the fat particles that are surrounded past the meat poly peptide and helps to form a stable emulsion matrix. Proteins and fat have an attractive interface that act equally a mucilage to hold together the emulsion matrix for a stable product. An example of the proteins that surround the fat particles is shown in Fig. fourteen.v.

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IR Radiometers

C.J. Donlon , in Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences, 2001

Narrow Beam Filter Radiometers

Narrow beam filter radiometers are frequently used to decide the SSST for air–bounding main interaction studies and for the validation of satellite derived SSST and at that place are several low-toll instruments that provide suitable accurateness and spectral characteristics. Many of these use a elementary thermopile or thermistor detector together with a low-cost broadband-focusing lens. Typically, they take simple self-scale techniques based on the temperature of the instrument and/or detector. Consequently they have poor resistance to thermal shock and have fore-optics that readily dethrone in the marine atmosphere. Notwithstanding, handled with care, these devices are accurate to ±0.1 K, albeit with limited sensitivity.

Precision narrow beam filter radiometers oft use pyroelectric detectors that produce a pocket-sized electrical current in response to changes in detector temperature forced past incident radiation. They have a fast response at ambient temperatures but crave a modulated betoken to operate. Modulation is accomplished past using an optical chopper having high reflectivity 'vanes' to alternately view a reference radiance source by reflection and a gratuitous path to the target radiance. The most mutual chopper systems are rotary systems driven by a modest electric motor phase locked to the detector output by an optoelectronic sensor Effigy 9A. An alternative blueprint driven by a small oscillating electromagnetic curl chosen a tuning fork chopper is shown in Figure 9B. As the coil resonates, the reflective vanes of the chopper oscillate alternately opening and closing an aperture 'gap.'

Figure 9. (A) Schematic layout of a rotary chopper; (B) schematic layout of a tuning fork chopper, (a) open up, (b) closed.

Dynamic detector bias compensation is inherent when using an optical chopper. The detector alternately measures radiance from the sea surface Fifty src and a reference blackbody, 50 bb (sometimes this is the detector itself) reflected by the chopper vanes resulting in ii signals

[8] S 1 = L bb + δ

[9] S 2 = L src + δ

Bold 50 bb remains abiding during a short chopping wheel, the bias term δ in eqns [eight] and [9] is eliminated

[ten] Δ S = S ane − S 2 = Fifty bb − Fifty src

Information technology is important to recognize the advantages to this technique, which is widely used:

•

There is minimal thermal drift of the detector;

•

The detector is dynamically compensated for thermal shock;

•

A precise modulated point is generated well suited to selective filtering providing excellent noise suppression and signal stability.

Notwithstanding, in club to recoup for instrument gain changes, an additional blackbody sources(s) is required. These are periodically viewed by the detector to provide a mechanism for accented calibration. Either the black body is moved into the detector FoV or an adjustable mirror reflects radiance from the blackness body on to the detector. Calibration cycles should be made at regular intervals so that proceeds changes can be accurately monitored and scale sources need to be viewed using the same optical path as that used to view the sea surface.

A basic 'blackness-body' calibration strategy uses an external bath of sea h2o as a high ε (>0.95) reference as shown in Figure ten. In this scheme, the radiometer periodically views the water bath that is stirred vigorously to forbid the development of a thermal pare temperature deviation. The view geometry for the water bath and the sea surface are causeless to be identical and, by measuring the temperature of the h2o bath the radiometer tin can exist absolutely calibrated. An advantage of this technique is that ε(λ, θ) is not required to determine the SSST. However, in exercise, information technology is hard to continuously operate a water bath at sea and surface roughness differences between the bathroom and sea surface are ignored.

Effigy 10. Schematic diagram showing the stirred water bath calibration scheme. (A) The radiometer in calibration mode, (B) the radiometer viewing the ocean surface afterwards the water bath has been moved out of the field of view (FoV).

On reflection at the sea surface, lengthened sky radiance is polarized and, at Brewster's bending (∼50° from nadir at a wavelength of 11   μm), the vertical v-polarization is negligible for a given wavelength (Figure xi). Only the horizontal h-polarization component remains so that if the radiometer filter response is v-polarized (i.e., only passes five-polarized radiance), negligible reflected sky radiance is measured by the radiometer. In practice, because Brewster's angle is very sensitive to the geometry of a item deployment (approximately±2°) this technique is just applicable to deployments from fixed platforms and when the sea surface is relatively calm. Further, the use of a polarizing filter will significantly reduce the point falling on the detector increasing the indicate-to-noise ratio.

Figure 11. Polarization of ocean surface reflection at 11   μm as a function of view angle. Total polarization is shown equally a solid line.

The apply of fabricated black-body cavities (Figure 12A) provides an accurate, versatile and, compact scale system. Unremarkably, 2 blackness-body cavities are used, one of which follows the ambience temperature of the instrument and a second is heated to a nominal temperature above this. High ε (>0.99) is attained by a combination of specialized surface finish and black-body geometry. The cavity radiance is determined as a function of the black torso temperature that is hands measured. Figure 12B shows a schematic outline of a typical black-body radiometer design using a rotary chopper and Figure 12C provides a schematic diagram of a typical output indicate.

Figure 12. (A) A section through a blackness-body calibration cavity of the re-entrant cone blueprint. (B) A typical blackness-torso calibration radiometer using a rotary optical chopper. (C) A schematic diagram of a typical detector output signal, showing ocean, reference, and calibration signals.

Note that for all calibration schemes, larger errors are expected beyond the calibrated temperature range which tin can be a problem for sky radiance measurements where clear sky temperatures of <200 Yard are common.

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SATELLITE REMOTE SENSING | TOMS Ozone

R.S. Stolarski , R.D. McPeters , in Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences, 2003

Wavelengths

TOMS makes measurements at half-dozen wavelengths. These are selected by slits cut into a chopper wheel that rotates at v revolutions per 2nd. The wavelengths for the Nimbus 7 TOMS and the World Probe TOMS are shown in Table i, along with the absorption and scattering coefficients averaged over the slit office of the spectrometer.

Table i. Constructive absorption and scattering coefficients

Vacuum wavelength (nm) Constructive ozone assimilation coefficient (atm cm −1 ) at 273   K (C 0 ) Rayleigh scattering coefficient (atm −one)
Nimbus 7 TOMS
312.34 1.9000 1.022
317.35 0.9915 0.954
331.06 0.1703 0.797
339.66 0.0390 0.715
359.96 1(−8) 0.560
380.01 1(−eight) 0.446
EP-TOMS
308.65 3.23 1.077
312.56 i.83 ane.020
317.57 0.973 0.953
322.37 0.536 0.894
331.29 0.165 0.795
360.twoscore 1(−eight) 0.557

The basic ozone-measuring wavelengths are at 312.five   nm and 317.v   nm. These are sufficiently captivated by ozone to get a signal and sufficiently transmitted to reach almost the surface. On Nimbus 7 TOMS, the 360   nm and 380   nm wavelengths measure the reflectivity of the surface/temper.

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Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy – Cellular Methods Part B

Kevin Kos , ... Karin E. de Visser , in Methods in Enzymology, 2020

2.1 Training of single-cell suspensions from freshly isolated murine tissues

i.

Freshly isolated murine tissues of interest in PBS on water ice

ii.

McIlwain Tissue Chopper (Ted Pella Inc.) including chopping discs, blades and scalpel

3.

Plunger of a 2   mL syringe

4.

Cell strainer, mesh size 70   μm (Falcon)

5.

Shaking waterbath or shaker

6.

Blood-red Blood Jail cell (RBC) lysis buffer: 155   mM NH4Cl, 10   mM KHCO3, 0.1   mM EDTA in HtwoO, pH 7.2–7.4 (Note ane).

7.

Freshly prepared tumor digestion mix: 3   mg/mL Collagenase A (Roche) in serum free DMEM (Dulbecco), Deoxyribonuclease I from bovine pancreas (DNAse) 25   μg/mL (Sigma-Aldrich)

8.

Inactivation buffer: DMEM medium supplemented with ten% vol/vol FCS

9.

Sorting buffer: one   × PBS, 0.five% BSA, 2   mM EDTA

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Electron Microscopy of Model Systems

Wiebke Möbius , ... Frédérique Varoqueaux , in Methods in Jail cell Biology, 2010

1 Materials

The post-obit requisites should exist at hand before dissecting the living tissue:

•

Binocular

•

Tissue chopper

•

Specimen carriers

•

Space filler of choice

•

Fine-tipped paint brush, if yeast paste is used as filler

•

Forceps: Dumont #5 fine tipped and mirror cease for handling fresh tissue

•

Scissors for cutting skin and bones

•

Fine leap scissor for cutting the optic nerve

•

Scalpel

•

Perfect loop™

•

Plastic petri dishes

•

Nitrocellulose membrane

•

Blotting paper

•

Ice box with ice-cold PBS

•

Disposable syringe (1   ml)

•

Perforated cryotubes

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Improving the sensory and nutritional quality of smoked meat products

Due east.P. Emmerson , in Processed Meats, 2011

21.3.five Internal improver

Of all of the approaches used to liquid smoke muscle-based nutrient products, internal addition is the almost efficient method in terms of adding smoke flavoring to such products. Internal addition will produce uniform season throughout the interior of the production which cannot be achieved through other application methods. However, internal addition will not produce any surface color, dissimilar that produced past atomization and drenching applications. The advantages that internal addition has over drenching and atomization methods is that no awarding equipment is necessary. The flavoring can exist added as part of a spice blend, can be added directly to the alkali solution before pumping, or added directly to the meat emulsion itself. Using an internal add-on produces uniform smoke flavor throughout the inside of the meat production. Consequently, antioxidant action within the product is greatly enhanced using this arroyo. Internal addition of liquid smokes tin can be used in 'Cook in the purse' products, and upon cooking, at that place is no disposal of liquid smoke after processing is consummate. When this arroyo is used to smoke muscle-based products, the product label must state 'Fume flavoring added'.

Internal addition of liquid smoke tin exist divided into two approaches; direct add-on and brine injection.

Direct addition

This method is used for sausage emulsion products. Liquid fume condensate is added directly to a bowl chopper or mixer during the mixing process. To assistance dispersion, information technology is recommended that the smoke is added to a portion of the water prior to mixing, due to the relatively minor amount of liquid smoke used in a batch; this facilitates a more even product dispersion.

Brine injection

In this method, the liquid smoke condensate is added to the alkali that is injected into cured products such as hams or bacon. A neutralized fume (i.eastward. neutral pH) must exist used because of the nitrite in the table salt brine; acrid volition break down the nitrite into nitrogen dioxide gas which tin can be lethal if produced in big quantities. In addition, the nitrite will not be available for the curing reaction and this would equally enhance concerns over product quality as well as safety. Neutralized varieties of smoke condensates must exist dilutable in water since they will be mixed into the salt brine solution.

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Mitochondrial Function

Anh H. Pham , David C. Chan , in Methods in Enzymology, 2014

2 Cerebellar Slice Cultures

Organotypic culturing of the cerebellum is a versatile system for studying the development and degeneration of cerebellar neurons. Murine cerebellar cultures have been extensively used as in vitro models for studying the electrophysiology and fundamental properties of synaptogenesis, neuronal development, dendritic growth, and neuroprotection (see Lonchamp, Dupont, Beekenkamp, Poulain, & Bossu, 2006, for review). We adopted the cerebellar slice civilisation to explore the exquisite susceptibility of Purkinje neurons to regulators of mitochondrial dynamics. Loss of mitochondrial fusion or fission machinery results in dendritic atrophy and progressive degeneration of Purkinje neurons (Chen, McCaffery, & Chan, 2007; Kageyama et al., 2012; Pham, McCaffery, & Chan, 2012). Interestingly, the Purkinje cells seem to exhibit the most sensitivity to mitochondrial physiology. Loss of AFG3L2, which encodes a subunit of the mitochondrial m-AAA metalloprotease, is implicated in spinocerebellar clutter 28 (SCA28) (Cagnoli et al., 2006). A haploinsufficiency mouse model of AFG3L2 exhibits motor deficits and Purkinje cell loss consistent with SCA28 (Maltecca et al., 2009). The long-term tillage of cerebellar slices is well suited for monitoring mitochondrial role in affliction models and exploring neuroprotective strategies to prevent Purkinje prison cell death.

The cytoarchitecture of the cerebellum consists of iii layers that remain well preserved in civilization. The molecular layer comprises the cerebellar cortex and consists mostly of Purkinje dendrites, parallel fibers from the granule cells, and axons and dendrites from interneurons. The Purkinje prison cell layer (PCL) consists of a monolayer of Purkinje cell bodies, and the innermost layer is known as the inner granule jail cell layer (GCL). Development of the cerebellum continues in the get-go 2–3 weeks of postnatal evolution. Maturation of the cerebellum involves the inward migration of the external granule cells to course the GCL, the outward movement of Purkinje cells to complete the PCL, and the evolution of extensive dendritic arborization and synaptic connections by Purkinje neurons (meet Chizhikov & Millen, 2003; Wang & Zoghbi, 2001, for review). We utilized cerebellar explants shut to the completion of maturation, betwixt P13 and P15, to study aspects of neuronal degeneration. Still, other studies take utilized neonatal explants in the first postnatal week to demonstrate that cerebellar slices continue maturation in civilization without extrinsic signal (Dupont, Fourcaudot, Beekenkamp, Poulain, & Bossu, 2006; Okazawa et al., 2009; Tauer, Volk, & Heimrich, 1996).

Molecular markers are available to establish neuronal identity in cerebellar slices. Biochemical markers such equally calcium bounden proteins, Calbindin D28K and parvalbumin, can exist used to distinguish Purkinje neurons and inhibitory interneurons (including basket, stellate, and Golgi cells). Purkinje cells are positive for both markers whereas interneurons are singly enriched with parvalbumin (run across Bastianelli, 2003, for review of more biochemical markers). The NeuN mark has been shown to label postmitotic granule cells (Weyer & Schilling, 2003). In improver to cellular markers, in that location are well-characterized promoters that can be used to drive cell-targeted genetic recombination in the cerebellum. In that location are several Cre driver lines from the Purkinje cell protein 2 (PCP2)/L7 locus that exhibit selective gene expression in Purkinje neurons and retinal bipolar cells past postnatal twenty-four hours half dozen (Barski, Dethleffsen, & Meyer, 2000; Gong et al., 2007). The γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptor α6 locus conveying a portion of exon 8 demonstrates selective expression in cerebellar granule cells during the first postnatal calendar week (Bahn, Jones, & Wisden, 1997).

In this section, we briefly summarize our methods for culturing cerebellar slices. Nosotros adapted the protocol for the basal ganglia and found excellent preservation of mature cerebellar cytoarchitecture in culture.

two.1 Preparation of the cerebellum

Because of its relatively small size, cerebellar slices tin be prepared using a vibratome or McIlwain tissue chopper (Lonchamp et al., 2006). We have selected the vibratome method for consistency in sectioning. Cerebellar cultures can be prepared in sagittal and transversal sections and demonstrate excellent viability with both orientations. Sagittal explants have been traditionally preferred to preserve the dendritic tree of Purkinje cells, dendritic and axonal projections of inhibitory interneurons, and the Purkinje efferents to the deep cerebellar nuclei (Heck & Sultan, 2002; Kapfhammer, 2010). However, parallel fibers of the granule cells are oriented perpendicular to Purkinje dendrites and are meliorate retained in the transversal aeroplane (Heck & Sultan, 2002). All the same, granule cells are immature during the postnatal period and exhibit robust plasticity for regrowing axons and synapses with Purkinje dendrites in culture (Tanaka, Tomita, Yoshida, Yano, & Shimizu, 1994). We utilized the same equipment and technique described in the previous section with some modifications noted beneath.

1.

Pups between ages of P1 through P18 accept been used to prepare organotypic cultures depending on the blazon of application.

2.

Trim the tissue according to Fig. 7.twoA and discard the top half of the cerebrum.

Figure 7.2. Preparation of sagittal cerebellar slices. (A) The brain is trimmed co-ordinate to the dashed lines, and the cerebellum is bisected at the midline. (B) The chuck is oriented in the middle of the specimen disc for sectioning. (C) Low magnification epitome of a cerebellar slice cultured for 3 weeks and labeled with anti-Calbindin D28K to highlight the Purkinje cells. (D) High magnification image of C showing dense dendritic arborization in the molecular layer. (E) Representative morphology of mature Purkinje neurons, showing all-encompassing dendritic shafts and terminals. (F) Magnified image of the boxed region in E, showing numerous dendritic spines in civilisation. Scale bar is 250   μm for C and D; 10   μm for Due east and F.
3.

Glue both hemispheres of the cerebellum on the chuck with the median side facing up.

4.

Orient the chuck flat in the specimen disc as seen in Fig. 7.2B, or glue the tissue on a nonorienting specimen disc.

5.

Slices can exist cut at multiple thicknesses ranging from 250 to 400   μm with optimal thinning in culture.

6.

Multiple slices tin be retained for cultivation due to the stereotyped arrangement of the cerebellar folia.

7.

Upwardly to iv slices can be cultured on a unmarried membrane insert without detriment to slice viability.

8.

Slices volition flatten to approximately 50   μm, plough transparent within the first week in culture and tin be used for experiments thereafter.

9.

Mature Purkinje neurons with big spines and all-encompassing secondary and tertiary branches are well preserved in culture, as seen in Fig. 7.2Eastward through seven.2F.

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Pulsatility in Neuroendocrine Systems

Susan Wray , in Methods in Neurosciences, 1994

Instruments and Materials Used for Generation of Slice Explant Cultures

The following instruments are routinely used during the dissection and plating procedures: dissecting microscope, fiber optic lighting, tissue chopper, repeating Eppendorf pipettes, minor oven, large surgical scissors (decapitation), small scissors (to remove the encephalon from the calvarium), fine-tipped forceps (removal of the pia, claret vessels, etc., and manipulation of the tissue slices), polished flat-surfaced small spatulas (transfer of the blocked tissue and tissue slices), razor blade holders and brittle blades (to dissect out the area of involvement), and aclar film (plastic disks used on tissue chopper, which can be sterilized and discarded later on using).

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